“Glossary” - Psychology

A

Abnormal Psychology: The study of psychological disorders, their symptoms, and treatments.
Affective Disorder: A mood disorder, such as depression or bipolar disorder, characterized by persistent changes in mood.
Aggression: Behavior intended to cause harm or pain, either physically or psychologically, to others.
Agoraphobia: An anxiety disorder marked by a fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult, often leading to avoidance of crowds or open spaces.
Altruism: Selfless concern for the well-being of others.
Anxiety: A state of nervousness or worry, often accompanied by physical symptoms, such as a racing heart or sweating.
Aptitude: The natural ability or talent to learn or perform certain tasks.
Attachment Theory: A psychological model that describes the dynamics of long-term relationships, particularly between children and caregivers.
Attention: The mental process of focusing on specific stimuli or information while ignoring other distractions.
Attribution Theory: A psychological theory explaining how individuals attribute causes to behavior (e.g., internal vs. external causes).
Attitude: A person’s feelings or beliefs toward a particular idea, object, or individual, influencing behavior.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social communication difficulties and repetitive behaviors.
Aversion Therapy: A type of behavioral therapy that pairs an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to discourage it.
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS): A disease caused by the HIV virus, affecting the immune system and often linked with psychological challenges.
Active Listening: A communication technique that involves fully concentrating, understanding, responding, and remembering what is being said.
Androgyny: The combination of male and female traits in an individual, often in terms of gender identity and expression.
Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): A personality disorder characterized by persistent patterns of disregard for others’ rights, often leading to manipulative or harmful behaviors.
Anhedonia: The inability to experience pleasure from activities that typically bring joy, often associated with depression.
Apperception: The process of interpreting new experiences by relating them to existing knowledge and experiences.
Assimilation: A cognitive process where individuals incorporate new experiences into existing mental structures or schemas.
Aversive Conditioning: A behavior modification technique where an undesirable behavior is paired with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce its occurrence.
Attentional Bias: The tendency to focus more on certain types of information while ignoring others, often related to emotions or preconceptions.
Agonist: A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response, often used in pharmacology to describe certain drugs.
Archetypes: According to Carl Jung, universal, archaic patterns and images that are embedded in the collective unconscious of humans.
Affective Neuroscience: A branch of neuroscience that studies how emotions are produced and regulated in the brain.
Affiliation Motivation: The need or desire to form social bonds and relationships.
Attentional Control: The ability to regulate and focus attention on relevant stimuli while filtering out distractions.
Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects memory, cognition, and behavior, primarily in older adults.
Acidic Personality: A person with an overly critical, sarcastic, or often hostile attitude, which can affect their social relationships.
Antidepressants: Medications used to treat symptoms of depression by balancing chemicals in the brain related to mood regulation.

B

Behaviorism: A psychological approach that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors, as opposed to internal mental states like thoughts or feelings.
Bipolar Disorder: A mood disorder characterized by extreme shifts in mood, from depression to mania.
Biopsychology: The study of how biological processes (e.g., genetics, brain function) impact behavior and mental processes.
Buffer Theory: Suggests that social support can act as a buffer against stress and negative emotions.
Belief: A mental representation that reflects a person’s understanding of reality, and influences behavior and thought patterns.
Binge Eating Disorder: A disorder characterized by episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort.
Blocking: A cognitive bias that occurs when irrelevant information prevents effective problem-solving.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): A mental health condition where a person becomes preoccupied with a perceived flaw in their physical appearance.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A type of psychotherapy that aims to change patterns of thinking and behavior that are contributing to psychological issues.
Behavior Modification: A technique used to reinforce desirable behaviors and discourage undesirable ones through conditioning.
Belongingness: The human need to connect with and feel part of social groups or relationships.
Broaden-and-Build Theory: A theory suggesting that positive emotions broaden an individual’s momentary thought-action repertoires, helping build personal resources over time.
Biological Clock: The internal mechanism that controls physiological and behavioral rhythms, like sleep-wake cycles and hormonal patterns.
Bystander Effect: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help someone in need when other people are present.
Behavioral Genetics: The study of how genetics influence behavior, including psychological disorders.
Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): A brain system involved in sensitivity to punishment and avoidance behavior.
Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD): A personality disorder characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, emotions, and behavior.
Broca’s Area: A part of the brain associated with speech production and language processing.
Belief Perseverance: The tendency to hold onto a belief even after evidence has been presented that contradicts it.
Biopsychosocial Model: A holistic approach to understanding behavior, mental health, and illness, considering biological, psychological, and social factors.
Brain Plasticity: The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
Brief Therapy: A type of therapy that aims to resolve a problem in a short period of time, usually focused on specific symptoms and goals.
Behavioral Economics: The study of psychological, cognitive, emotional, cultural, and social factors affecting economic decisions.
Behavioral Activation: A therapy approach used to treat depression and other mood disorders by encouraging patients to engage in activities that provide pleasure and fulfillment.
Biological Model of Abnormal Behavior: The theory that psychological disorders are caused by biological factors, such as genetic predisposition or neurotransmitter imbalances.
Bulimia Nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors like vomiting or excessive exercise.
Biphasic Sleep: A sleep pattern where a person takes two distinct periods of sleep within a 24-hour period, often associated with older adults or some cultural practices.
Broaden-and-Build Model of Positive Emotions: A model suggesting that positive emotions broaden our awareness, promote creativity, and build personal resources over time.
Biofeedback: A process that enables individuals to control physiological functions like heart rate, muscle tension, or brain waves using real-time data.
Behavioral Activation Therapy (BAT): A cognitive-behavioral technique for treating depression and other mood disorders by gradually increasing engagement in activities.
Behavioral Economics: A field combining psychology and economics to understand human decision-making processes.
Biological Rhythms: Regularly occurring cycles in biological systems, such as sleep-wake patterns, body temperature, and hormonal fluctuations.
Beliefs and Schemas: Deeply held convictions and mental frameworks that help people make sense of the world.
Bottom-Up Processing: The process of understanding stimuli starting from the most basic sensory features to the more complex patterns.
Brain Hemisphere: The two sides of the brain (left and right) that control different cognitive and emotional functions.
Behavioral Therapy: A type of therapy focused on changing unhealthy patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving through conditioning.
Broaden-and-Build Theory: The idea that positive emotions broaden our thinking, build social bonds, and help us cope with stress.
Buffering Hypothesis: Suggests that social support acts as a protective factor against stress and psychological distress.
Big Five Personality Traits: A psychological model that identifies five major dimensions of personality (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism).
Biopsychosocial Model: An integrated approach to understanding human health that considers biological, psychological, and social factors.

C

Cognition: The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding, including thinking, memory, attention, and problem-solving.
Cognitive Dissonance: A psychological theory that describes the discomfort experienced when holding two conflicting beliefs or when behavior conflicts with beliefs.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): A type of psychotherapy that helps individuals identify and change negative patterns of thinking and behavior.
Conditioning: A process of learning in which a behavior becomes associated with a specific stimulus. This can be classical (Pavlovian) or operant (Skinnerian).
Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to produce a similar response (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs).
Cognitive Psychology: The study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.
Critical Period: A specific time during development when a particular skill or ability must be acquired, or it may be more difficult or impossible to learn later.
Conformity: The tendency to adjust one’s attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors to align with group norms or expectations.
Consciousness: The state of being aware of and able to think about one’s own existence and the surrounding world.
Cerebellum: A region of the brain involved in the regulation of motor control, coordination, and balance.
Causal Attribution: The process of explaining the causes of behaviors or events, such as attributing success to ability or failure to luck.
Cognitive Development: The process by which individuals improve their cognitive abilities, such as thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving, typically through stages.
Chronic Stress: A prolonged state of stress that can have harmful effects on physical and mental health.
Constructivism: A theory of learning that suggests people build their own understanding and knowledge of the world through experiences and interactions.
Conscious Mind: The part of the mind that contains thoughts and perceptions that we are actively aware of.
Cortex: The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher functions such as thought, memory, and language.
Client-Centered Therapy: A type of therapy developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizing a non-directive, empathetic approach to help clients realize their potential.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses.
Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort required to process information in working memory.
Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to reduce anxiety, often seen in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
Cognitive Reappraisal: A strategy in emotion regulation where individuals change their interpretation of a situation to alter its emotional impact.
Crisis Intervention: The immediate and short-term response to individuals in acute psychological distress to prevent harm and promote stabilization.
Cultural Psychology: The study of how cultural factors influence psychological processes and behaviors.
Consciousness Altering Drugs: Substances that affect an individual’s perception, mood, or behavior, including alcohol, marijuana, and hallucinogens.
Countertransference: The therapist’s emotional reaction to the client, often influenced by the therapist’s own unresolved issues or feelings.
Causal Inference: The process of determining whether a relationship between two variables is causal, or merely correlational.
Conditioned Stimulus: In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.
Conservative Bias: The tendency to believe that past trends or patterns will continue into the future.
Cultural Competence: The ability to understand, communicate with, and effectively interact with people across different cultures.
Crisis: A stressful or dangerous situation that causes emotional or psychological disturbance, requiring intervention.
Color Perception: The way the brain interprets and organizes visual information from wavelengths of light to produce the experience of color.
Central Nervous System (CNS): The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information and controlling responses.
Classical Conditioning: A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a behavior, leading to a conditioned response.
Conversion Disorder: A mental health condition in which psychological stress or conflict leads to physical symptoms without a medical cause.
Conflict Resolution: The process of resolving a disagreement or dispute between two or more parties through communication, negotiation, or mediation.
Conditioned Response: In classical conditioning, the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus.
Cognitive Distortion: Patterns of irrational or biased thinking that can contribute to mental health problems, such as anxiety or depression.
Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of the brain, involved in higher-order functions like perception, thought, and decision-making.

D

Defense Mechanisms: Psychological strategies used by individuals to cope with anxiety or stress, often unconsciously. Examples include repression, denial, and projection.
Depression: A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest in activities once enjoyed.
Developmental Psychology: The study of how individuals change and develop throughout their lifespan, from infancy to old age.
Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and pleasure, often associated with feelings of happiness and satisfaction.
Displacement: A defense mechanism in which an individual redirects emotions or impulses from the original source to a less threatening target.
Dissociation: A psychological process in which an individual disconnects from their thoughts, feelings, or sense of identity, often as a response to trauma.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): A classification system used by mental health professionals to diagnose mental health conditions and disorders.
Drive Theory: A psychological theory that explains behavior as motivated by the desire to reduce drives, such as hunger or thirst, to achieve homeostasis.
Dual Process Theory: A cognitive theory that suggests two systems of thinking: a fast, automatic, and intuitive system, and a slower, more deliberate, and analytical system.
Depersonalization: A state in which an individual feels detached or disconnected from their own body or thoughts.
Dyslexia: A learning disorder characterized by difficulty with reading, writing, and spelling, often due to difficulties in decoding words.
Depressive Episode: A period of time marked by symptoms of major depressive disorder, including low mood, loss of interest in activities, and impaired functioning.
Disorder: A condition that causes significant distress or impairment in an individual’s ability to function in daily life.
Delusion: A false belief held with strong conviction despite evidence to the contrary, often seen in psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID): A mental health condition in which a person experiences two or more distinct identities or personality states that control their behavior.
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT): A form of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed to treat individuals with borderline personality disorder, focusing on acceptance and change.
Desensitization: A process through which individuals become less sensitive to stimuli or situations after repeated exposure, often used in treating phobias.
Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and personal accountability in a group, often leading to behavior that is more impulsive or aggressive.
Delay of Gratification: The ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward in favor of a later, more significant reward.
Depressive Attributional Style: The tendency of individuals with depression to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global causes.
Dream Analysis: A therapeutic technique used in psychoanalysis, where dreams are interpreted to reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires.
Dynamic Systems Theory: A theory in developmental psychology that views development as a complex, dynamic process influenced by many interacting factors over time.
Diversionary Coping: Using distraction, such as engaging in activities or focusing on other thoughts, to cope with stress or negative emotions.
Dopaminergic System: The neural pathways in the brain that use dopamine as a neurotransmitter, crucial for regulating mood, motivation, and motor functions.
Depressive Symptoms: The signs and indicators of depression, which may include fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, changes in appetite, and difficulty concentrating.
Differential Diagnosis: The process of distinguishing between two or more conditions that share similar symptoms.
Distress: Emotional or psychological suffering or discomfort, which may result from challenging life circumstances, trauma, or mental health conditions.
Directive Therapy: A therapeutic approach where the therapist takes an active role in guiding the treatment process, often providing specific suggestions or interventions.
Disorganized Attachment: A type of insecure attachment observed in children, characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors toward a caregiver.
Duration of Effect: The length of time a psychological treatment or medication remains effective before its effects diminish or require adjustment.
Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder: A dissociative disorder marked by persistent or recurring feelings of detachment from one’s own thoughts or surroundings.
Dynamic Testing: A form of assessment that looks at a person’s potential for future learning and growth, often through guided interactions or challenges.
Differentiation: The process of distinguishing between different stimuli, concepts, or types of information.
Dysfunctional Behavior: Actions or patterns of behavior that negatively impact an individual’s functioning in various areas of life, such as work or relationships.
Desire Theory: A psychological theory suggesting that individuals are motivated by desires or goals that they wish to fulfill.

E

Ego: In Freudian psychoanalytic theory, the part of the psyche that mediates between the conscious mind, the unconscious, and reality, and works to fulfill desires in socially acceptable ways.
Empathy: The ability to understand and share the feelings or emotions of others.
Emotion: A complex psychological state involving physiological, behavioral, and cognitive components that influence thoughts and behavior.
Extinction: A process in classical conditioning where a conditioned response is reduced or eliminated by presenting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
Ego Defense Mechanisms: Psychological strategies used by the ego to cope with stress or anxiety, including repression, projection, and denial.
Exposure Therapy: A therapeutic approach used to treat anxiety and phobias by gradually exposing the individual to feared stimuli in a controlled setting.
Empirical Research: Research based on observed and measured phenomena, often involving experiments or data collection to draw conclusions.
Epigenetics: The study of how environmental factors can influence gene expression and how these changes can affect behavior and development.
External Locus of Control: The belief that one’s outcomes in life are determined by external factors such as fate, luck, or powerful others, rather than personal actions.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): A medical treatment for severe depression that involves electrically inducing seizures in the brain under controlled conditions.
Ego Identity: The sense of self and personal identity that emerges from social interactions and individual experiences, particularly during adolescence.
Equilibration: In Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of balancing assimilation and accommodation to achieve cognitive stability.
Envy: A negative emotion that arises when someone perceives another person as having something they desire or feel they deserve.
Emotional Intelligence (EQ): The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and regulate emotions, both in oneself and in others.
Epistemology: The branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge, including its nature, sources, and limitations.
Egocentrism: The tendency to view the world from one’s own perspective, often without considering other people’s viewpoints, common in early childhood.
Experimental Psychology: A branch of psychology that focuses on conducting experiments to understand behavior and mental processes in controlled settings.
Ethics: Moral principles that govern the conduct of individuals or groups, especially in research and treatment within psychology.
Enlightenment: In the context of psychology, a state of awareness or understanding, often used in therapy to help individuals recognize patterns in their thinking and behavior.
Egoism: A theory in ethics that suggests individuals should act in ways that maximize their self-interest or well-being.
Empowerment: The process of increasing individuals’ control over their own lives, often by enhancing their decision-making skills or access to resources.
Expectancy Theory: A psychological theory suggesting that individuals are motivated by expected outcomes; behavior is influenced by the perceived likelihood of achieving a desired result.
Electroencephalogram (EEG): A test used to measure electrical activity in the brain, often used to study brain waves, sleep patterns, and neurological disorders.
Errorless Learning: A technique used in teaching where errors are minimized through structured guidance, promoting successful learning outcomes.
Endorphins: Neurotransmitters in the brain that act as natural painkillers and are involved in regulating mood and reducing stress.
Escape Conditioning: A type of learning in which an individual learns to escape from an unpleasant stimulus, often used in behavior therapy.
Ethnopsychology: The study of how different cultures perceive and understand psychological phenomena, often focusing on the cultural context of mental health.
Extraversion: A personality trait characterized by sociability, energy, and enthusiasm, as opposed to introversion.
Episodic Memory: The memory of specific events or experiences, including details of time, place, and context, often contrasted with semantic memory (general knowledge).
Existential Psychology: A branch of psychology that focuses on the individual’s search for meaning, authenticity, and self-awareness, often drawing from existential philosophy.
Efficacy: The ability to produce a desired or intended result, often used in evaluating the effectiveness of psychological treatments or interventions.
Eros: In Freudian theory, the life instinct that drives behaviors related to survival, reproduction, and pleasure, often contrasted with Thanatos (the death instinct).
Empiricism: The theory that knowledge comes from sensory experience and evidence gathered through observation and experimentation.
Engagement: The emotional commitment and investment a person feels towards an activity or goal, often used in the context of work, learning, or relationships.
Executive Function: Cognitive processes that help individuals plan, make decisions, solve problems, and control impulses, often associated with the prefrontal cortex.

F

Freud, Sigmund: The founder of psychoanalysis, a method of treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst, and the theory of the unconscious mind.
Fixation: In psychoanalytic theory, a persistent focus on an earlier stage of development, often resulting in an inability to progress to later stages.
Frustration: The emotional response to being blocked from achieving a goal, often leading to feelings of anger, annoyance, or stress.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis: The theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences, meaning that smiling can make you feel happier.
Falsifiability: The principle that for a theory to be scientific, it must be able to be proven wrong through experimentation or observation.
Focusing: A therapeutic technique developed by Eugene Gendlin that encourages individuals to pay attention to bodily sensations to help process emotions and gain insight.
Free Association: A psychoanalytic technique where a patient says whatever comes to mind, which is believed to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.
Fear: An emotional response to a perceived threat, often accompanied by physiological changes such as increased heart rate and sweating.
Flow: A state of deep immersion and involvement in an activity where an individual experiences a sense of fulfillment, enjoyment, and focus.
Fight-or-Flight Response: The body’s physiological reaction to a perceived threat, which prepares the individual to either fight or flee the situation, often accompanied by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and adrenaline.
Functionalism: A school of thought in psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function to help individuals adapt to their environments.
Frontal Lobe: A part of the brain located in the front of the cerebral cortex, associated with higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, and planning.
Factor Analysis: A statistical method used to identify clusters of related variables, often used in psychological research to identify underlying dimensions of psychological traits.
False Memory: A memory that is distorted or fabricated, often occurring due to suggestion or the blending of real and imagined events.
Family Therapy: A therapeutic approach that involves treating the family as a whole, addressing patterns of communication and relationships that affect individual and family well-being.
Flashbulb Memory: A vivid, detailed memory of a significant event, often related to emotional experiences, such as hearing about a major news event or personal milestone.
Framing Effect: A cognitive bias in which people make decisions based on how information is presented, rather than on the actual content.
Foot-in-the-Door Technique: A persuasion strategy where a small request is made first, followed by a larger request, based on the principle that agreeing to the first request increases the likelihood of agreeing to the second.
Freudian Slip: An unintentional error in speech or behavior that is believed to reveal unconscious thoughts or desires.
Field Dependence: A cognitive style where individuals are more influenced by external, contextual information when solving problems, as opposed to field independence, where they rely more on internal cues.
False Consensus Effect: A cognitive bias in which individuals overestimate the extent to which their beliefs, opinions, and behaviors are shared by others.
Fixed Interval Schedule: A type of reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where a response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed.
Fixed Ratio Schedule: A reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where a response is reinforced after a specific number of responses.
Fight-or-Flight Response: The physiological reaction to perceived danger, involving increased heart rate, faster breathing, and a heightened state of alertness, preparing the body to either confront or escape the threat.
Frontal Lobe Syndrome: A condition resulting from damage to the frontal lobe of the brain, often leading to changes in behavior, judgment, and executive functioning.

G

Galen: An ancient Greek physician whose ideas greatly influenced Western medicine and psychology, particularly his theory of the four humors.
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid): An inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain that helps regulate neuronal excitability and plays a role in reducing anxiety, promoting relaxation, and preventing over-excitation in the nervous system.
Gestalt Psychology: A school of thought in psychology that focuses on understanding how people perceive objects as whole forms, rather than just the sum of their parts.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A three-stage physiological response to stress (alarm, resistance, exhaustion), developed by Hans Selye, explaining how the body reacts to stressors over time.
Gene-environment Interaction: The complex interplay between an individual’s genetic makeup and the environmental factors they experience, influencing behavior and development.
Groupthink: A phenomenon that occurs when a group prioritizes consensus and harmony over critical thinking, leading to poor decision-making.
Grit: A personality trait characterized by perseverance and passion for long-term goals, often associated with success and resilience.
Gender Roles: Socially constructed roles and behaviors that society typically expects from individuals based on their gender.
Grounding: A psychological technique used to help individuals stay connected to the present moment, often used in therapy to manage symptoms of anxiety or trauma.
Glial Cells: Cells in the nervous system that provide support and protection for neurons, including functions such as nutrient supply and waste removal.
Giftedness: The possession of exceptional intellectual or creative abilities that are far beyond the average.
Global Workspace Theory: A theory of consciousness that suggests that conscious awareness results from the interaction of multiple brain processes that “broadcast” information across different regions of the brain.
Goodness-of-fit: A concept in developmental psychology referring to the match between a child’s temperament and the demands or expectations of their environment, which can influence their behavior and development.
Grief: The emotional response to loss, typically associated with death, but it can also apply to other forms of loss (e.g., loss of a relationship, job, etc.).
Ganglion: A group of nerve cell bodies located outside the central nervous system, involved in transmitting signals in the nervous system.
Geriatrics: The branch of medicine and psychology that focuses on the health and well-being of elderly individuals, including psychological aspects like cognitive aging and dementia.
Grounded Theory: A research methodology that involves building theory based on data collected from the field, focusing on the development of conceptual frameworks grounded in real-world observations.
Generalization: In classical conditioning, the tendency for a conditioned response to be elicited by stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Goal Setting Theory: A motivational theory that suggests that setting specific, challenging goals can lead to higher performance and greater achievement.
Guided Imagery: A therapeutic technique that involves directing an individual’s thoughts to a series of positive or relaxing mental images, often used in stress reduction and pain management.
Genetic Predisposition: The genetic inheritance that makes individuals more likely to develop certain behaviors, diseases, or traits based on their genetic makeup.

H

Habituation: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure, indicating that the organism has learned to ignore the non-threatening stimulus.
Hallucination: A perception in the absence of an external stimulus, such as hearing voices or seeing things that aren’t actually present, often associated with mental health disorders like schizophrenia.
Harlow’s Monkeys: A series of experiments by Harry Harlow that studied attachment behavior in infant monkeys, showing that comfort and warmth are more important than food in forming attachment bonds.
Hemispheric Lateralization: The specialization of the left and right hemispheres of the brain for different cognitive functions, such as language processing (typically in the left hemisphere) and spatial abilities (typically in the right hemisphere).
Helplessness (Learned): A condition in which an individual, after repeated exposure to uncontrollable or inescapable stress, begins to feel unable to affect or change their situation, often leading to depression.
Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making, but sometimes lead to cognitive biases or errors.
Hypnosis: A trance-like state of heightened suggestibility and focused attention, often used in therapy to help individuals make positive behavioral changes or manage pain.
Hypomania: A milder form of mania, characterized by elevated mood, increased activity, and energy, which can occur in bipolar disorder.
Hyperactivity: An excess of physical movement, often associated with conditions like ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder).
Humanistic Psychology: A perspective in psychology that emphasizes human potential, self-actualization, and the importance of self-awareness and personal growth.
Human Factor Psychology: A field of psychology that examines how humans interact with machines and technology, aiming to improve efficiency and safety in environments such as workplaces or transportation systems.
Human Development: The study of the psychological and physical changes that occur throughout a person’s lifespan, including cognitive, emotional, and social development.
Humor: A psychological concept related to the expression and experience of amusement or joy, often linked to coping strategies and social bonding.
Hypothalamus: A part of the brain that controls vital functions such as temperature regulation, hunger, thirst, and the release of hormones, playing a critical role in emotional responses.
Homeostasis: The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment, such as regulating temperature, blood pressure, and other vital conditions.
Hysteria: A historical diagnosis that was once used to describe a range of psychological disorders, often involving physical symptoms without a medical cause, now typically referred to as conversion disorder or somatic symptom disorder.
Health Psychology: The study of how psychological, social, and behavioral factors influence health, illness, and overall well-being, often focusing on stress, coping mechanisms, and health behaviors.
Hierarchy of Needs: A theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, which suggests that human beings have a set of needs arranged in a hierarchy, starting with basic physiological needs and progressing to self-actualization.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction or statement that can be researched or experimented upon, often forming the basis for scientific studies in psychology.
Hostility: A psychological state marked by anger, aggression, or antagonism, often linked to stress, mental health disorders, or interpersonal conflicts.
Hypotension: Low blood pressure, which can sometimes be linked to psychological factors such as stress or depression.

I

Iconic Memory: A type of sensory memory that involves the brief retention of visual information, typically lasting for a fraction of a second.
Illusion: A misperception or distortion of a sensory stimulus, where the brain interprets information differently from how it actually is, such as seeing a mirage or a stick appearing bent in water.
Imprinting: A rapid form of learning occurring at a specific critical period, especially in animals, where they form attachments to the first moving object they see, often a parent figure.
Implicit Memory: A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious awareness for recall, such as skills, habits, and conditioned responses.
Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions, often impacting behavior and judgments without the individual being aware of them.
Individuation: A process in Jungian psychology where a person integrates various aspects of their unconscious and conscious mind to become a fully developed and balanced individual.
In-group Bias: The tendency to favor one’s own group over others, often leading to discrimination or prejudice against outsiders or members of other groups.
Inattentional Blindness: The failure to notice an unexpected stimulus in one’s environment because attention is focused elsewhere, as demonstrated in the “gorilla in the basketball game” experiment.
Incentive Theory: A theory of motivation that suggests behavior is driven by external rewards or incentives, rather than internal drives or needs.
Independent Variable: In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated or changed to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Inferiority Complex: A psychological condition in which a person feels inadequate or less than others, often leading to feelings of self-doubt and insecurity.
Informed Consent: The process by which participants are fully informed about the procedures, risks, and purpose of a study, and give their voluntary agreement to participate.
Instinct: Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals or humans, often triggered by specific stimuli, and not learned.
Intelligence: The ability to acquire knowledge, learn from experience, adapt to new situations, and apply logic and reasoning to solve problems.
Intellectual Disability: A developmental disorder characterized by below-average intellectual functioning and difficulties with daily living skills, often diagnosed through IQ testing and other assessments.
Internal Locus of Control: The belief that one has control over their life outcomes and is responsible for their actions and decisions.
Interpersonal Intelligence: The ability to understand and interact effectively with others, as described in Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.
Introspection: The examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes, often used in early psychological methods such as structuralism.
IQ (Intelligence Quotient): A measure of a person’s intellectual ability, derived from standardized testing, with an average score typically set at 100.
Isolation: A state of being separated from others, often resulting in social withdrawal or loneliness, which can have psychological impacts.
Immunization (Psychological): The concept that exposing individuals to certain stressors or psychological challenges can help them develop resilience and better cope in the future.
Irrational Beliefs: Beliefs that are unrealistic, illogical, or unsupported by evidence, often contributing to emotional distress or maladaptive behaviors, as identified in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).
Interference (Memory): A phenomenon where new or old information disrupts the recall of other information, with retroactive interference occurring when new memories block old ones, and proactive interference occurring when old memories block new ones.

J

Jacques Lacan: A French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist known for his reinterpretation of Freud’s work, particularly in terms of language, the unconscious, and the mirror stage.
James-Lange Theory: A theory of emotion which suggests that physiological responses (such as heart rate or muscle tension) come before emotional experiences. According to this theory, we feel emotions because we perceive bodily changes.
Jean Piaget: A Swiss psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development, which outlines how children progress through different stages of mental growth, from sensorimotor to formal operational stages.
Job Burnout: A psychological syndrome resulting from prolonged work-related stress, characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment.
John B. Watson: An influential American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting introspective methods.
Jungian Psychology: The school of psychology developed by Carl Jung, which focuses on concepts like the collective unconscious, archetypes, and individuation. It emphasizes the integration of the unconscious into conscious awareness for personal growth.
Just-World Hypothesis: A cognitive bias that suggests people believe the world is fundamentally just, and that individuals get what they deserve. This belief can lead to victim-blaming.
Judgment: The cognitive process of evaluating or forming opinions about the world, situations, or people, based on available information. It involves decision-making and reasoning.
Joint Attention: A social-cognitive process where two people (often a caregiver and a child) focus on an object or event together, often seen as a key element in early learning and social development.
Jukes-Campbell Hypothesis: A controversial theory suggesting that behaviors, intelligence, and social traits can be inherited through families and genetic lines, often used in discussions of heredity and eugenics.

K

Kandel, Eric: A neuroscientist who won the Nobel Prize for his work on the biological mechanisms of learning and memory, particularly in the study of the sea slug Aplysia.
Karpman’s Drama Triangle: A psychological model that describes dysfunctional social interactions, particularly in conflict situations. It involves three roles: the persecutor, the victim, and the rescuer.
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC): A standardized test designed to assess the cognitive abilities of children. It measures various intellectual abilities including memory, reasoning, and processing speed.
Kinesthetic Learning: A learning style in which individuals learn best through physical activities and hands-on experiences, rather than through listening or observing.
Kleptomania: A psychological disorder characterized by a recurrent urge to steal items, typically not for personal use or monetary gain, but to experience a thrill or emotional relief.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: A theory developed by Lawrence Kohlberg, outlining the stages through which individuals progress as they develop moral reasoning, ranging from pre-conventional to post-conventional levels.
Kinesics: The study of body movements and gestures as a form of non-verbal communication.
Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory: A theory of career development emphasizing the role of learning experiences and environmental factors in shaping career choices and behaviors, rather than inherent traits or abilities.
Kurt Lewin: A German-American psychologist who is considered one of the founders of social psychology. He is known for developing the field theory, the concept of group dynamics, and his work on leadership styles and change management.
Knowledge of Results: A term in psychology referring to the feedback that individuals receive about their performance, particularly in learning or skill acquisition tasks, which can affect motivation and future performance.

L

Lability: Emotional instability or rapid mood swings, often seen in various psychological disorders such as borderline personality disorder or bipolar disorder.
Lateralization of Brain Function: The idea that certain cognitive processes are more dominant in one hemisphere of the brain than the other. For example, language is typically controlled by the left hemisphere, while spatial abilities are more dominant in the right hemisphere.
Learned Helplessness: A psychological condition in which a person or animal learns to feel helpless and passive in situations where they have no control over the outcome, often due to past experiences of failure.
Learning: A process by which behavior or knowledge is acquired through experience, practice, or study. In psychology, learning can involve various forms such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.
Learning Styles: A concept that suggests individuals have preferred ways of learning, such as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic (hands-on) methods.
Libido: A term used by Sigmund Freud to describe the sexual drive or energy that motivates human behavior. In Freudian theory, libido is one of the primary instincts driving personality development.
Life Satisfaction: A measure of an individual’s overall assessment of their life, often related to well-being and happiness.
Limbic System: A group of structures in the brain involved in regulating emotions, motivation, and memory. Key parts of the limbic system include the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Long-Term Memory: The storage of information over extended periods of time. It is a type of memory that allows people to retain information for hours, days, years, or even a lifetime.
Locus of Control: A psychological concept referring to how much control individuals believe they have over events that affect them. Those with an internal locus of control believe they have influence over their outcomes, while those with an external locus of control believe that external forces dictate their fate.
Loving-Kindness Meditation (LKM): A type of meditation focused on developing feelings of compassion and love for oneself and others. It is often used to enhance emotional well-being and reduce stress.

M

Machiavellianism: A personality trait characterized by manipulation, deceit, and a lack of morality in order to achieve personal goals. It is one of the “Dark Triad” traits, alongside narcissism and psychopathy.
Maintenance Rehearsal: A memory technique in which information is repeated over and over to keep it active in short-term memory, without necessarily encoding it into long-term memory.
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): A mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest or pleasure, and a variety of physical and cognitive symptoms such as fatigue, changes in appetite, and trouble concentrating.
Manic Episode: A period of abnormally elevated mood and energy, often seen in bipolar disorder. It may include symptoms such as impulsive behavior, racing thoughts, grandiosity, and decreased need for sleep.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: A psychological theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, which suggests that humans have a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic physiological needs, followed by safety, love and belonging, esteem, and finally, self-actualization.
Memory: The mental process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. It can be categorized into sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Mental Health: A state of well-being in which an individual can cope with the normal stresses of life, work productively, and contribute to their community.
Mental Illness: A broad range of psychological conditions that affect mood, thinking, behavior, or perception, such as anxiety disorders, depression, schizophrenia, and personality disorders.
Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes. It involves thinking about thinking, such as monitoring how one learns or solves problems.
Modeling: In psychology, this refers to the process of learning behaviors through observation and imitation, often associated with Albert Bandura’s social learning theory.
Mood: A general emotional state that lasts for a period of time, such as happiness, sadness, anger, or irritability. Moods can influence a person’s behavior and thinking patterns.
Motivation: The psychological processes that initiate, guide, and sustain goal-oriented behavior. Motivation can be intrinsic (internal drive) or extrinsic (driven by external rewards or pressures).
Multiple Personality Disorder: An outdated term for what is now known as Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), where an individual has two or more distinct identities or personalities, each with its own patterns of behavior.
Münchausen Syndrome: A psychiatric disorder where an individual intentionally produces or feigns symptoms of illness to gain attention or sympathy, often leading to unnecessary medical treatments.
Myelin Sheath: The protective covering around nerve fibers that helps speed up the transmission of electrical signals in the nervous system.

N

Narcissism: A personality trait characterized by excessive self-love, an inflated sense of one’s importance, and a lack of empathy for others. It is often linked to a sense of entitlement and a need for admiration.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD): A psychological condition characterized by a long-term pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy, often leading to interpersonal difficulties.
Negative Reinforcement: A concept in operant conditioning where a behavior is strengthened by the removal or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. For example, taking an aspirin to relieve a headache is a form of negative reinforcement.
Neurobiological: Refers to the study of the biology of the brain and nervous system and how they relate to behavior, emotions, and cognitive functions.
Neurocognitive Disorders: A category of disorders that primarily affect cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and problem-solving, often due to brain injury or disease. Examples include Alzheimer’s disease and dementia.
Neurodevelopmental Disorders: A group of disorders that involve the development of the brain and nervous system, often present from childhood. Examples include autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, and learning disabilities.
Neurosis: A term used in older psychological literature to describe a range of psychological disorders that involve anxiety, obsession, or compulsive behavior, though it is no longer commonly used in contemporary diagnostics.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers in the brain that transmit signals between neurons. They play a key role in regulating mood, emotion, and various cognitive functions. Examples include serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.
Normalization: The process of making a person with a mental or developmental disability feel part of society by treating them as similarly as possible to others, including offering them opportunities for personal development.
Nudge Theory: A behavioral science theory that proposes positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions to influence people’s decisions and behaviors, rather than through coercion or direct instruction.
Nystagmus: Involuntary, repetitive movements of the eyes, often related to neurological conditions, which can affect balance, vision, and coordination.
Need for Achievement: A psychological trait that refers to an individual’s desire to accomplish tasks and pursue goals, typically in competitive or challenging environments.
Need for Affiliation: A psychological need that drives individuals to seek social connections, friendships, and relationships. It is a desire to belong and be accepted by others.
Need for Power: A psychological need that involves a desire to control, influence, or have authority over others. People with a high need for power may seek leadership roles or control in various situations.
Neurofeedback: A technique that uses real-time monitoring of brain activity to help individuals regulate their brain function. It is often used for conditions such as ADHD, anxiety, and PTSD.
Normal Distribution: A statistical concept that refers to the pattern in which most occurrences fall near the mean (average) value, creating a bell-shaped curve. It is often used in psychological assessments and tests.
Nomothetic: An approach in psychology that seeks to identify general laws or principles that apply to a large population. It contrasts with the idiographic approach, which focuses on individual cases.
Nonverbal Communication: The transmission of messages or information without the use of words, typically through body language, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and tone of voice.

O

Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. This concept typically develops in infants around 8-12 months of age and is a key milestone in cognitive development.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A mental health disorder characterized by recurrent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) performed to reduce anxiety or prevent a feared event.
Operant Conditioning: A learning process in which the likelihood of a behavior is increased or decreased based on the consequences that follow it. Reinforcement strengthens behavior, while punishment weakens it.
Oedipus Complex: A psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud, describing a child’s unconscious desire to replace the parent of the same sex and marry the parent of the opposite sex. This concept is part of Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.
Observational Learning: A form of learning that occurs by watching others and imitating their behaviors, often described in Albert Bandura’s social learning theory. This type of learning is important in both children and adults.
Optimal Arousal Theory: A theory of motivation that suggests that people are motivated to engage in behaviors that help them achieve an optimal level of arousal or alertness. This can vary between individuals and situations.
Obedience: The act of following direct commands or instructions from an authority figure. Psychologist Stanley Milgram’s famous experiment on obedience showed how people might comply with harmful orders under authority.
Orientation: In psychology, orientation refers to an individual’s understanding and awareness of their environment, as well as their ability to recognize time, place, and person (e.g., orientation to reality).
Outgroup Bias: The tendency to view members of a group to which one does not belong (the “outgroup”) more negatively, often leading to prejudice and stereotyping.
Overconfidence Bias: A cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the accuracy of their beliefs, knowledge, or predictions. This bias can affect decision-making and lead to risky behaviors.
Overjustification Effect: A phenomenon in which external rewards (such as money or prizes) can reduce intrinsic motivation to perform a task, as the individual may come to view the behavior as externally driven rather than self-motivated.
Oxytocin: A hormone that plays a role in social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth. Often called the “love hormone,” oxytocin is associated with feelings of trust, affection, and empathy.
Observational Research: A research method where the researcher watches and records the behavior of subjects in their natural environment without manipulating any variables or intervening.
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): A behavioral disorder in children characterized by a pattern of angry, irritable moods, argumentative behaviors, and vindictiveness toward authority figures.
Outlier: In statistical terms, an outlier is a data point that significantly differs from the other data points in a set. In psychology, outliers might represent unusual or exceptional cases in psychological data or research.
Operant Behavior: Behavior that is controlled by its consequences, either reinforced or punished, in the context of operant conditioning. This behavior is voluntary and is influenced by the individual’s environment.
Objective Tests: Psychological tests that are standardized and typically use a fixed set of questions or responses. Examples include personality inventories and intelligence tests.
Overgeneralization: A cognitive distortion in which a person applies a single negative event to all similar events. For example, after failing a test, a person may believe they will always fail tests in the future.

P

Panic Attack: A sudden episode of intense fear or anxiety that can cause physical symptoms such as rapid heartbeat, sweating, dizziness, and difficulty breathing. These attacks are often unpredictable and can be a feature of panic disorder.
Paranoid Personality Disorder: A mental health condition characterized by a pervasive distrust and suspicion of others, often interpreting others’ motives as malicious without evidence.
Perception: The process by which individuals interpret and make sense of sensory information. It involves recognizing, organizing, and interpreting stimuli from the environment.
Personality: The unique set of psychological traits, behaviors, and patterns of thought that define an individual. Theories of personality, like the Big Five, suggest that personality can be described by traits such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
Placebo Effect: A phenomenon in which individuals experience real changes in their health or condition after receiving a treatment that has no therapeutic effect, often due to their belief in the treatment’s efficacy.
Positive Reinforcement: A process in operant conditioning where a behavior is encouraged by presenting a pleasant stimulus or reward after the desired behavior is performed.
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): A mental health condition triggered by experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. Symptoms may include flashbacks, nightmares, anxiety, and emotional numbness.
Prejudice: An unjustified or negative attitude toward an individual or group based on their perceived characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion, often without sufficient evidence or experience.
Psychodynamic Therapy: A form of psychotherapy that focuses on uncovering unconscious thoughts and feelings, often stemming from early childhood experiences, in order to resolve psychological conflicts.
Psychosis: A mental condition characterized by a disconnection from reality, which may involve hallucinations, delusions, and impaired insight. Schizophrenia is one of the most well-known psychotic disorders.
Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach founded by Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the exploration of unconscious desires, repressed memories, and early childhood experiences to understand and treat mental disorders.
Psychopathology: The study of mental disorders, including their causes, symptoms, and treatments. It also refers to the manifestation of abnormal behavior and thought processes.
Psychological Conditioning: A learning process that uses associations or consequences to modify behavior. The two main types are classical conditioning (associating stimuli) and operant conditioning (associating behavior with consequences).
Psychological Reactance: The emotional reaction people have when they perceive that their freedom to choose or act is being restricted. This often leads to resistance or a desire to regain control.
Psychoactive Drugs: Substances that affect the brain and alter perception, mood, or consciousness. Examples include alcohol, caffeine, nicotine, and illicit drugs such as heroin or cocaine.
Psychosomatic: Relating to the interaction between the mind and body, where psychological factors (such as stress) can cause physical symptoms or exacerbate medical conditions.
Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, disinhibited, and egotistical traits. It is often assessed using the Hare Psychopathy Checklist.
Projection: A defense mechanism in which individuals attribute their own unacceptable feelings, thoughts, or motives to another person. For example, someone who is angry may accuse others of being angry with them.
Priming: A psychological phenomenon where exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a subsequent stimulus, often unconsciously. For example, seeing the word “yellow” might make people faster at recognizing the word “banana.”
Prefrontal Cortex: The part of the brain located at the front of the frontal lobes, involved in higher cognitive functions such as decision-making, problem-solving, and controlling impulses.
Perseveration: The repetition of a particular response (such as a word or action) despite the absence or cessation of a stimulus. It is often observed in individuals with brain injuries or certain psychological conditions like obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
Punishment: In operant conditioning, a process that decreases the likelihood of a behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus (positive punishment) or removing a pleasant stimulus (negative punishment).

Q

Quality of Life (QoL): A subjective measure of an individual’s overall well-being, including their physical health, emotional state, level of independence, social relationships, and their relationship to important life goals.
Quantitative Research: A research method that focuses on gathering numerical data and analyzing it using statistical techniques. It is often used in psychology to measure variables and test hypotheses.
Quasi-Experiment: A type of experimental design that lacks random assignment. It involves manipulating an independent variable and observing its effect on a dependent variable but lacks full control over other variables that may affect the results.
Quotient: A term used in psychology to refer to the result of a division, often in relation to IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests. IQ scores are calculated by dividing a person’s mental age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100.
Qualitative Research: A research method in psychology that focuses on understanding phenomena through non-numerical data, such as interviews, case studies, and observations. It explores the meanings, experiences, and social contexts of individuals or groups.
Quantitative Assessment: The use of numerical data and statistical methods to measure psychological variables, often used in standardized testing or surveys to evaluate things like intelligence, personality, or mental health symptoms.
Quotient of Variance: A statistical measure that compares the variance between different groups or conditions to the total variance within a dataset, often used to test the effectiveness of an experimental manipulation or treatment.
Quasi-Correlation: A type of correlation where there is no controlled manipulation of variables, but the relationship between two variables is observed naturally or under non-experimental conditions.
Quasi-Social Influence: The effect that groups or individuals have on a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors without direct social interaction, often through media, advertisements, or other indirect channels.

Racism: A belief that one race is superior to others, often leading to discrimination and prejudice against people based on their racial or ethnic group.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT): A type of cognitive-behavioral therapy developed by Albert Ellis, focusing on changing irrational beliefs and thoughts to promote healthier emotional responses and behaviors.
Reaction Formation: A defense mechanism where a person expresses or behaves in a way opposite to their true feelings or impulses, often as a way of reducing anxiety or emotional conflict.
Realism: In psychology, it refers to the idea that the world can be understood and represented objectively, typically in the context of perception and how people understand reality.
Reciprocal Determinism: A concept introduced by Albert Bandura, stating that behavior, personal factors, and environmental influences all interact and influence one another in a continuous loop.
Reinforcement: In operant conditioning, it is the process of strengthening a behavior by following it with a rewarding stimulus (positive reinforcement) or the removal of an unpleasant stimulus (negative reinforcement).
Repression: A defense mechanism where uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, or memories are unconsciously pushed out of awareness to avoid emotional pain.
Resilience: The ability to recover from or adapt to difficult situations, stress, or adversity, and continue functioning effectively.
Reticular Formation: A structure in the brainstem that plays a key role in regulating sleep, wakefulness, and arousal, influencing attention and consciousness.
Risk-Taking Behavior: Actions or decisions made in situations that involve a high degree of uncertainty or potential harm, often studied in the context of adolescence, addiction, or mental health.
Role Conflict: A situation in which a person experiences tension between different roles they occupy (e.g., work vs. family) and the expectations associated with each role.
Rorschach Inkblot Test: A projective psychological test consisting of 10 inkblot images, which are used to measure underlying thought disorder and get an x-ray view of how a person’s mind operates.
Rooting Reflex: A natural reflex in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek, typically seen as a survival mechanism to help find the nipple for breastfeeding.
Reality Principle: A concept from psychoanalysis, introduced by Freud, that describes the ability of the ego to assess the external world and act in ways that are socially acceptable, as opposed to acting purely on internal desires.
Reactivity: In research, reactivity refers to changes in a person’s behavior caused by being observed, often seen as a challenge in behavioral research.

Self-Actualization: The realization or fulfillment of one’s talents and potential, often considered the highest level of psychological development in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Social Psychology: The branch of psychology that deals with how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.
Schema: A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information, often based on past experiences or knowledge.
Stimulation: The act of providing a stimulus to provoke a response, which can be a sensory, emotional, or cognitive response, often used in experimental psychology.
Sublimation: A defense mechanism proposed by Freud, where socially unacceptable impulses or desires are unconsciously transformed into socially acceptable actions or behaviors.
Self-Esteem: One’s sense of personal value or self-worth. It reflects how much a person values themselves and their abilities.
Stress: A state of mental or emotional strain resulting from challenging or demanding circumstances. Stress can affect both physical and psychological health.
Social Learning Theory: A theory developed by Albert Bandura, which suggests that people learn behaviors through observation, imitation, and modeling, in addition to direct reinforcement.
Shaping: A technique used in behavior modification, where successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced to guide the individual toward the desired behavior.
Sensory Memory: The brief retention of sensory information after the stimulus is no longer present, such as the memory of a visual image after the object has disappeared.
Sleep Disorders: Conditions that interfere with the ability to fall asleep, stay asleep, or achieve restful sleep, such as insomnia or sleep apnea.
Somatic Symptom Disorder: A mental health condition characterized by an intense focus on physical symptoms, which may cause significant distress and impair daily functioning.
Split-Brain Syndrome: A condition resulting from a surgical procedure that cuts the corpus callosum (the connection between the two brain hemispheres), leading to difficulties in communication between the hemispheres.
Self-Serving Bias: A cognitive bias where people tend to attribute positive events to their own character, but attribute negative events to external factors or other people.
Striatum: A part of the brain involved in the reward system, involved in motor and cognitive functions, and linked to decision-making and addiction.
Sleep Deprivation: A condition that occurs when a person doesn’t get enough sleep, often leading to cognitive impairments, mood changes, and physical health issues.
Substance Use Disorder: A pattern of substance use (e.g., alcohol, drugs) leading to significant impairment or distress, often including tolerance, withdrawal, and loss of control.
State of Mind: A temporary mental condition that affects a person’s mood, perceptions, and reactions. It can be influenced by factors like stress, emotions, and cognitive processes.
Social Comparison: The process of evaluating oneself in relation to others, often used to assess one’s own abilities, achievements, or status.
Secondary Reinforcer: A stimulus or object that gains value through association with a primary reinforcer, such as money, praise, or approval.

Theory: A set of principles or ideas used to explain or predict phenomena, based on research and observation.
Transference: A psychological phenomenon in which patients project feelings, desires, and expectations from past relationships onto their therapist, often based on unconscious experiences.
Tinnitus: The perception of sound, often described as ringing, buzzing, or hissing, in the ears or head when no external sound is present. It is often linked to stress or hearing loss.
Temperament: The inherent personality traits and emotional tendencies that influence how an individual reacts to stimuli. It is considered to be biologically based.
Threshold: The level at which a stimulus is strong enough to be detected or cause a response. It can refer to sensory thresholds (e.g., the minimum intensity of a sound needed to hear it) or other types of responses.
Token Economy: A behavioral therapy technique where individuals earn tokens for desired behaviors, which can later be exchanged for rewards or privileges.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): A non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, often used as a treatment for depression.
Test Anxiety: A psychological condition in which individuals experience excessive worry or fear before or during a test, which can negatively impact performance.
Twin Studies: Research involving twins (identical or fraternal) to understand the role of genetics and environment in shaping psychological traits.
Therapeutic Alliance: The collaborative relationship between a therapist and client, which plays a significant role in the success of psychotherapy.
Theory of Mind: The ability to understand and attribute mental states (such as beliefs, desires, and intentions) to oneself and others, and to recognize that others may have thoughts different from one’s own.
Tachycardia: An abnormally fast heart rate, which can be a result of anxiety, stress, or a medical condition.
Trait Theory: A psychological theory that suggests that personality is made up of a number of stable traits, which can be measured and categorized, such as the Big Five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism).
Transtheoretical Model: A model of behavior change that posits that people move through five stages (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance) when changing habits or behaviors, such as in addiction treatment.
Temperament Theory: A psychological theory that categorizes individuals into distinct personality types based on their emotional reactivity and self-regulation, often linked to biology and genetics.
Therapist: A professional trained to provide psychological treatment and support, such as a psychologist, psychiatrist, or counselor.
Time-Out: A behavioral strategy in which an individual is temporarily removed from a reinforcing environment (such as a social setting or a play area) to decrease undesirable behavior.
Type A Personality: A personality type characterized by competitiveness, impatience, and high stress levels, often associated with an increased risk of heart disease.
Type B Personality: A personality type characterized by a more relaxed, patient, and less competitive demeanor than Type A.
Tolerability: The capacity to endure discomfort or a stimulus, especially in the context of medication or therapy, where tolerance refers to how well a person can manage side effects or treatment.

Unconscious: The part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not currently in conscious awareness but can influence behavior and emotions.
Unconditional Positive Regard: A concept from humanistic psychology, particularly associated with Carl Rogers, where a therapist offers complete acceptance and support to a client, regardless of what the client says or does.
Utilitarianism: A moral philosophy that suggests the best action is the one that maximizes utility, typically defined as the greatest happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.
Uptalk: A speech pattern in which a speaker’s voice rises at the end of a statement, making it sound like a question. It can affect how a speaker is perceived in terms of confidence.
Universalist Theory: A psychological theory that suggests certain principles or laws apply universally to all humans, regardless of culture or society.
Ulcer: An open sore or wound in the body that may cause psychological distress, often linked to stress or anxiety. Psychological factors can exacerbate or influence the development of physical conditions like ulcers.
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia: A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by symptoms that do not clearly fit into other types of schizophrenia, such as paranoia or disorganized behavior.
Unipolar Depression: A type of mood disorder characterized by persistent low mood and lack of interest in activities, without alternating periods of high mood (as seen in bipolar disorder).
Urban Legend: A widely circulated story or belief that is often passed on as fact, which may influence people’s attitudes or behaviors, sometimes based on psychological biases or misinformation.
Uptake Inhibition: In pharmacology, a process where the reabsorption (uptake) of neurotransmitters is blocked, which can be relevant in the treatment of depression or anxiety disorders.
User-Centered Design: In psychology and human factors, it refers to the design of products, services, or systems that are built around the needs, wants, and limitations of the users.
Underextension: A cognitive error in which a child applies a word or label too narrowly, such as calling only their pet dog “dog” and not recognizing other dogs as the same.
Unstructured Interview: A type of interview in which there are no set questions, allowing the conversation to unfold naturally. It is commonly used in qualitative research.
Universal Emotions: Basic emotions such as happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust, which are thought to be experienced by people across all cultures.
Unsystematic Observation: Informal, spontaneous observation that lacks a formal method or structured plan, which can introduce biases or be unreliable for drawing scientific conclusions.
Unipolar Disorder: Another term for major depressive disorder, characterized by a persistent low mood and loss of interest in activities.
Undifferentiated Identity: A state in which an individual does not strongly identify with any specific social roles, ideologies, or life paths, sometimes leading to confusion or identity issues.
Usability Testing: A process in psychological research or product design where users are observed interacting with a product or system to identify usability problems.
Upward Comparison: A type of social comparison where individuals compare themselves to others who they perceive as better off or more successful, which can influence self-esteem or motivation.
Underarousal: A state where an individual experiences lower levels of physiological or psychological arousal, which may be associated with conditions like depression or boredom.

Validation: The act of recognizing and affirming someone’s thoughts, feelings, or experiences. It’s an important concept in therapy, especially in dialectical behavior therapy (DBT).
Vicarious Learning: Learning that occurs by observing the behaviors and consequences of others, rather than through direct experience. It’s often associated with Albert Bandura’s social learning theory.
Vigilance: A state of being alert or watchful, especially for potential threats. It is important in situations where a person must remain focused for an extended period, such as in safety-critical environments.
Vicarious Reinforcement: A concept from social learning theory where an individual is more likely to repeat a behavior after seeing someone else rewarded for that behavior.
Violence: Behavior that involves physical force with the intention to harm or damage. It can be a subject of psychological study in terms of aggression, behavior disorders, or societal impact.
Visual Perception: The process by which the brain interprets and makes sense of visual stimuli from the environment. It is studied within cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
Visuospatial Processing: The ability to understand and process visual and spatial information, including the ability to recognize shapes, objects, and their positions in space.
Volition: The act of making a conscious decision or choice; it refers to the psychological process of will or determination.
Vulnerability: A state of being open to harm, either physically or psychologically. It can refer to an individual’s susceptibility to stress, trauma, or mental health issues.
Verbal Behavior: Any form of communication involving words, including speech, writing, and gestures. It is a key area of study in fields like linguistics and behaviorism.
Variable Ratio Schedule: A type of reinforcement schedule in which a behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. It’s known to produce high and steady rates of response.
Value Systems: The set of beliefs or principles that guide an individual’s behaviors and decisions. Understanding value systems is important in ethics and moral psychology.
Vicarious Trauma: The emotional and psychological impact that a person can experience by being indirectly exposed to trauma, often occurring in professions like counseling, law enforcement, and healthcare.
Voluntary Attention: The process by which an individual consciously focuses on specific stimuli or tasks. It contrasts with involuntary attention, where focus is captured by external stimuli.
Ventriloquism Effect: A phenomenon in which a person attributes the speech or actions of a ventriloquist’s dummy or puppet to themselves, due to the belief that the puppet is ‘alive.’
Vestibular System: The sensory system responsible for providing the brain with information about motion, equilibrium, and spatial orientation. It plays a crucial role in balance and coordination.
Visual Cliff: A psychological experiment used to study depth perception in infants and animals. It involves a platform that appears to drop off sharply, testing how subjects react to perceived risk.
Verbal Fluency: The ability to produce words quickly, usually measured by how many words a person can generate in a set period, often used as an indicator of cognitive function.
Vagueness: A lack of clarity or precision in communication, often studied in the context of language development or in analyzing mental states that are unclear or ambiguous.
Vocalization: The act of producing sounds with the vocal cords, which can be significant in psychological studies related to communication, emotional expression, and speech development.

Willingness to Pay (WTP): A concept used in behavioral economics and consumer psychology to measure the amount a person is willing to spend for a particular product, service, or experience.
Working Memory: A cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information required for complex tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.
Withdrawal: The process or symptoms that occur when an individual stops using or reduces their use of a substance, leading to physical and psychological discomfort. This is commonly seen in substance use disorders.
Wish Fulfillment: A Freudian concept that refers to the unconscious desire for gratification of unmet needs, often manifesting in dreams or fantasies.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): A widely used test for measuring adult intelligence, which assesses various cognitive abilities, such as verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.
Wernicke’s Area: A region in the brain associated with language comprehension, typically located in the left temporal lobe. Damage to this area can lead to language disorders.
Word Association: A psychological technique used to study the unconscious by presenting a word and asking a person to respond with the first word that comes to mind. It is often used in psychoanalysis.
Weber’s Law: A principle in psychophysics which states that the just noticeable difference (JND) between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the stimuli.
Workplace Psychology: The branch of psychology that studies human behavior in organizational and work settings, focusing on topics like employee motivation, performance, and leadership.
Worldview: The set of beliefs and values through which an individual interprets and makes sense of the world around them. This concept plays an important role in social and cultural psychology.
Willpower: The ability to resist short-term temptations in order to achieve long-term goals. It is often studied in the context of self-control and delayed gratification.
WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children): A cognitive test designed to measure the intelligence of children, similar to the WAIS but adapted for younger individuals.
Wagner’s Theory of Working Memory: A theory that suggests that working memory consists of multiple components, including phonological loops and visuospatial sketchpads, which are responsible for handling different types of information.
Window of Tolerance: A concept in trauma psychology that refers to the optimal zone of arousal where an individual can effectively process and respond to stressors. If arousal falls outside this window (either too high or too low), it can impair coping and functioning.
White Matter: Tissue in the brain that contains nerve fibers responsible for transmitting information between different brain regions. It plays a key role in cognitive functioning and processing speed.
Worry: A cognitive process involving repetitive thoughts about potential negative outcomes, often associated with anxiety and stress. It can be a barrier to problem-solving and emotional regulation.
Wundt, Wilhelm: A German psychologist who is often regarded as the father of experimental psychology. He established the first laboratory dedicated to psychological research and is known for his work in structuralism.
Window of Tolerance: The zone in which a person can manage and process emotions and experiences effectively. When this zone is exceeded, individuals may experience stress, anxiety, or dissociation.
Workplace Burnout: A psychological condition characterized by emotional exhaustion, reduced performance, and a sense of detachment from one’s work, often resulting from chronic workplace stress.
World Health Organization (WHO): An international organization that plays a critical role in mental health advocacy, research, and global health policy, including promoting mental health awareness and addressing psychological conditions worldwide.

Xenophobia: A fear or dislike of people from other countries or cultures. It is often studied in social psychology in the context of prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup relations.
X Chromosome: One of the two sex chromosomes, the other being the Y chromosome. Psychologists studying genetics and behavior may examine the role of the X chromosome in various developmental and mental health conditions.
Xenotext: A term sometimes used in the context of neuropsychology to describe a process or condition where an individual’s behavior or neural function is shaped by external cultural influences or texts.
X-Linked Disorders: Genetic disorders that are caused by mutations on the X chromosome. Some psychological conditions, such as certain developmental or intellectual disabilities, may be linked to X-linked genes.
X-Axis: In psychological research, particularly in data analysis and statistics, the X-axis represents one of the variables being measured in a graph or chart, such as time, frequency, or a categorical variable.

Yerkes-Dodson Law: A principle in psychology that suggests there is an optimal level of arousal for performance, and that performance improves with arousal up to a point, after which it begins to decline. This law is often represented as an inverted U-shaped curve.
Yin and Yang: A concept from Chinese philosophy, often referenced in psychology in the context of balance and dualism. Yin represents qualities such as passivity, darkness, and femininity, while Yang represents activity, light, and masculinity. It is sometimes applied metaphorically in understanding human personality or behavior.
YAVIS: An acronym that stands for “Young, Attractive, Verbal, Intelligent, and Successful.” It is used in psychology to describe clients who are perceived as ideal or more likely to be selected for therapy or research, often in contrast to those who are less conventionally desirable.
Yerkes Law: Another reference to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, this term is used to describe the relationship between arousal and performance, particularly in the context of motivation and behavior.

Zen: A form of Buddhism that emphasizes meditation and mindfulness, often referenced in psychology in the context of mindfulness-based practices. It focuses on achieving a state of mental clarity and peace, which can be used therapeutically to reduce stress and improve emotional regulation.
Zajonc’s Mere Exposure Effect: A psychological phenomenon proposed by Robert Zajonc, which suggests that people tend to develop a preference for things they are exposed to repeatedly. The more often we encounter something, the more likely we are to like it, even if we are not consciously aware of it.
Ziggler’s Correctional Model: A model used to understand the behavior of individuals in correctional settings, focused on addressing psychological and emotional issues to improve behavior and rehabilitation outcomes.
Zero-Sum Game: A concept from game theory often used in psychology to describe situations where one person’s gain is exactly balanced by another person’s loss. This term is often applied to competitive situations where there is a fixed amount of resources, such as in economic behavior, social interactions, or conflict resolution.
Zygote: A fertilized egg that results from the union of sperm and egg. In psychology, the study of the zygote can be relevant in the context of prenatal development and the influences of early biological factors on psychological outcomes.